Begin with the constraint on saleable output A factory can install modern machines and still deliver late if its real constraint is inspection, changeover or missing material. The commercial case for automation should therefore start with a production problem that customers already pay to solve. For manufacturers across BRICS economies, the relevant opportunity may be a small improvement in repeatable output rather than a fully automated plant. Suppliers who understand the constraint can offer a clearer return than vendors selling a broad vision of transformation. UNIDO's Industrial Development Report series examines industrial development and the role of industrial policy. UNIDO report series. This article applies an original factory-level lens: modernization should be judged by accepted output, dependable…